The Effects of Birth Control on a Fetus

It was in the 1960's when a pill was introduced to Americans that would now give women the control over their own fertility. By taking a small pill taken once a day women have the ability to stop pregnancy by preventing monthly ovulation; this is cause by the releasing of hormones such as estrogen and progesterone throughout the body in a continuous cycle. With the pill preventing ovulation, it's impossible for the egg to be fertilized and for pregnancy to take place. 



 Although the pill is used by 60 million women worldwide, everyone has their thoughts and worries of how it can affect pregnancy and a fetus. Being the pill is around 95-99% effective, a pregnancy may occur when it’s not properly taken or a day is skipped. Today there are several kinds of birth control. The patch, and shot are the newest forms of birth control, yet they all have the same effects as the pill although they are said to be more reliable.



How the Birth Control Patch Works



Although it's thought that the pill doesn't significantly increase the risks of birth defects, in a study in 2009 it associated the birth control pill during the time of conception, showed that the risks of low birth weight and premature labor took place according to the MayoClinic.com. The research in previous studies shows the risks of problems developing in the baby's sexual organs such as an enlarged clitoris. In a study at the University of Missouri in Columbia, taking the pill could led to deformity in the prostates of the developing embryo and increasing risks of having problems with their bladders and prostates later in the child’s life.

The main issue that doctors worry about today is that the pill gives a woman a higher chance of having a ectopic, when the egg implants itself usually in the fallopian tube rather than in the uterus.

This is the only main risk that doctors inform women of if they don't take the pill regularly and potentially have the risk of becoming pregnant.

If a woman thinks that she pregnant:
If a woman thinks or suspects that she may be pregnant and she's on the pill, she should stop taking the pill immediately and seek medical attention before retaking the pill. If she is pregnant she needs to make the doctor or physician aware of the period in which she was taking the pill.

Pregnancy after the pill:

Some women feel that they will have complications becoming fertile after taking the pill for years, although it’s been proven that it takes about 3 months to become completely fertile again. This doesn’t necessarily go for all women, some take longer and others become pregnant right after being off the pill. It depends on your body’s natural cycle.  

According to pregnancy-info.net, here are a few tips that will help you to improve your chances of becoming pregnant after being on the pill:

·   Eat as nutritiously as possible.

·   Begin taking folic acid supplements.

·   Quit smoking.

·   Limit your intake of alcohol.

·   Try to manage your stress

 Resources:
http://www.mayoclinic.com/
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/ectopic-pregnancy/DS00622
http://www.pregnancy-info.net/pregnancy_pill.html
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/birth-control-pills/AN01662
http://contraception.about.com/od/thepill/f/pillusepregnant.htm
http://www.ehow.com/facts_5692008_effects-control-pills-developing-fetus.html

Burgers and Pills

Body mass index is a science term that a lot of Americans worry about, and for good reason. Body mass index indicates a status of health determined by height, weight of individuals. According to the scales and measurements of this BMI tool, a score of 18.5 or below means your under weight. a score of 18.5-24.9 means your normal for your height and weight. a score of 25 - 29.9 means your over weight, and a score of 30 or higher means your an obese individual. Although  this tool is not full proof in detecting obesity, it can serve as a great indicator if an individual needs to make dietary  and better health changes.The BMI index rating of thirty (obese) can mean up to thirty pounds over weight.

BMI - Mathamatical Formula 

Body Mass Index equation:

BMI = [

weight in pounds              (height in inches) x (height in inches)

] x 703

For example, a person who weighs 150 pounds and is 5 feet 3 inches tall has a BMI of 26.5.

[

150 lbs.             (63 inches) x (63 inches)

] x 703 = 26.5

  
New research indicates that individuals who are considered obese and over weight are more likely to take  prescription drugs  versus those who are not obese. Most of the drugs are related to high blood pressure and high cholesterol which are both linked to obesity.
This is especially important when you consider approximately one third of Americans are obese. out of the ten types of drug classes, obese Americans where being prescribed eight of the ten.
Research also showed that," In addition to blood pressure and cholesterol drugs, medications for treating diabetes, asthma and thyroid problems, as well as antidepressants and painkillers, were taken by a higher proportion of obese people in some or all age groups."

Sexual hormone drugs were the only type of drug that had less obese people being prescribed them out of the ten drug classes. This study tested ten thousand individuals which is a decent sized sample.

Obese individuals aren't the only ones who are being prescribed a lot of medications. More than fifty percent of normal individuals according to the BMI index, use one or more prescribed medicines. Ninety percent of women over the age of 65 were prescribed at least one medication.Of those ninety percent of women, sixty six percent were prescribed three or more medications. Sixty-five years old were  an outlier in the data information because they are prescribed multiple medications regardless of weight.
This data suggests strong correlation between obesity and higher prescribed medications. So to restate that with more optimism individuals who avoid obesity have lesser tendencies to be prescribed medications because they are able to avoid obesity related illness such as high blood pressure and high cholesterol ratings.

Links

• http://www.aicr.org/reduce-your-cancer-risk/weight/tools_bmi_calculator.html?gclid=CKbjhMy86awCFYZ95QodM1-Olg
• http://news.yahoo.com/obese-people-more-meds-study-191606720.html

Conjoined Twins

Two babies that are physically stuck together, physically connected are called Conjoined Twins, also known as Siamese Twins. They are also called Siamese Twins due to Conjoined Twin men that worked on the circus. Due to the rare condition and the expression “Siamese Twins”, they made that the synonym for Conjoined Twins.

When a single fertilized egg splits and develops into two fetuses, the result is Identical Twins. The split occurs during the first 12 days after conception. When the fertilized egg splits later than 12 days, typically among 13 and 14 days after conception, separation stops. The zygote did not split totally. Separation stops before the process is complete, so Conjoined Twins are formed. This theory is called the “fission theory.” How and where the twins will be joined is determined when the split of the egg happens. Another theory suggested that the cause for this disorder is that two separate embryos may somehow combine together during early development. Some scientists have argued that the fertilized egg completely separated but the stem cell is what fused then together. Still, no one knows what might be the cause for both theories.

Conjoined or Siamese Twins occur one in 100.000 births or one in 500,000 babies. This can be identified via ultrasound at an early stage of pregnancy. Conjoined Twins share placentas and membranes, but can also share one or more organs and body parts. They are mostly joined at the head, pelvis and chest. Siamese Twins are more often shown on women than men, with a ratio of 3:1. 75% of the Conjoined Twins are females and 70% are joined together at the thorax or abdomen. Most Siamese Twins die after birth or are stillborn. 40-60% are still born, and many other die after few days of birth. The percentage of survival is about 25%.

There are fifteen types of Conjoined Twins: Thoracopagus, Omphalopagus, Xiphopagus, Ischipagus, Ischio-Omphalupagus, Parapagus, Dicephalus, Craniopagus, Cephalopagus, Cephalothoracopagus, Diprosupus, Pygopagus, Rachipagus, Acardiac Twins, and Parasitic Twins.

In some cases, some Conjoined Twins can be separated with a surgery. It depends on where the twins are joined and how many organs are shared for the surgery to be successful. Also, it depends on the experience of the doctor and its team. This is a risky surgery, and in most cases the result is death of both or one of the twins.

An article has discussed cases where there were conjoined triplets, and even quadruplets. The article specifically showed a case of Paragus triplets joined with a shared sternum. All three babies were well formed and had normal heads and extremities. This is exceedingly unusual, but may happen.

The separation has been practiced since 1950’s. Although the first successful surgery was in Switzerland in 1689, twin girls that were joined by a ligament. The first successful separation after the time it has been attempted (1950’s), was in 1953. They were two girls from Louisiana and were joined together in the lower back at 8 days of age.

References:

http://www.phreeque.com/conjoined_twins.html

http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/conjoined-twins/DS00869/DSECTION=causes

http://www.baby2see.com/multiples/twins.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjoined_twins

The Biological Perspective of Homosexuality

Homosexuality is a controversial topic that surfaces in several areas of society including religion and politics frequently in the United States. While many individuals develop an opinion for or against homosexuality based on their family and social culture, the question of whether or not a person can help being a homosexual is often debated upon.

As most people know, sexual orientation refers to an emotional, romantic, and sexual attraction between individuals of the same sex. These feelings are generally developed during middle childhood to the early adolescent (puberty) stage of a person’s life. Men who are attracted to men are deemed as “gay males,” where females attracted to other females are called “lesbians.” People said to be attracted to both sexes are referred to as “bi-sexual.” An individual is said to have “come out” when he or she indicates their sexual preference as that of the same sex to family and friends. While there is no said consensus on the causes of homosexuality, there have been scientific research studies that support the fact that homosexuality could be biologically determined.

When it comes to the biological argument over homosexuality, research experiments have been conducted dating back to 1930. Some of the more noted findings include Karen Hooker’s psychological tests in 1957. Through her testing and research, she was able to conclude that there is a zero correlation between determinism and sexuality, which then resulted in the APA removing sexuality from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Psychological Disorders in 1973. In lighter terms, homosexuality was thus deemed as not a mental disorder.

Several researchers have studied the differences between the brain structure and function of homosexuals in comparison to heterosexuals. Both Allen and Swabb concluded in the 1990’s that the size and anatomical structure of the anterior commisure of the hypothalamus in the homosexual subjects’ brains were significantly smaller than the structure in the heterosexual subjects’ brains. The most noted researcher in the biological argument for homosexuality is Simon Levay. His research coincides with that of Allen’s and Swabb’s in that he also noted changes in the size and structure of the anterior hypothalamus in the AIDS victims that he studied. These conclusions make sense because the most sexually dimorphic area of the brain is located in the hypothalamus, therefore, a change in sexual behavior, maternal behavior, and emotions can be altered if the size and structure of a component of the hypothalamus is different than that of a heterosexual individual.

When looking at other mammals outside of homo-sapiens, the New York Aquarium in Coney Island recently suggested that two pairs of their penguins are gay. The penguins are said to be inseparable and known as the best couple (maternally) of all the penguins there. Silo and Roy, one of the gay penguin couples, are said to be raising an egg together, and doing a great job at it. While zookeepers had to pay close attention to the couples to detect whether or not they were indeed homosexual due to penguins not having external sexual organs, their observations have been proved to be correct. Over 450 animal species have been said to exhibit homosexual members of their population including bears, monkeys, and even fish. These observations suggest that homosexuality is indeed a biological matter.

While an agreed upon conclusion has not been made on whether homosexuality is determined upon nature or nurture, the biological evidence is clear. Whether or not individuals and cultures will accept the fact that biology may have a strong say in the preferences and feelings of homosexuals is solely dependent on future generations to come.

For more information, visit:

• Better Understanding of Human Sexuality: APA
• "The Homosexual Brain" by Huma Q. Rana
• "Homosexuality: Nature or Nuture" AllPsych Journal
• Nature versus Nuture: Homosexuality's Link to Biology and Society
  

Is an Epidural really worth it?

It is safe to say that child birth is a different experience for every woman. There are many factors that contribute to the birthing experience like, the environment, size of the mother and the baby, position of the baby, mothers pain tolerance, and medications used. Everyone has a choice about most of these things and one that is debated it the use of an Epidural for pain relief. Ultimately it is the woman's choice if she would like an Epidural during child birth but before going into labor and arriving at the hospital a woman should consider her options along with the risks and benefits.

An Epidural is considered a regional anesthetic because it give pain relief to a specific part of the body. In this case the lower body sensations are reduced to give a woman pain relief during pregnancy. A Epidural is given by placing a small tube or catheter in the lower back in the epidural space. Once the catheter is in place medication can be started. There are two main choices that a woman has with medicaton. She can choose a regualar Epidural that requires a pump or periodic injections and is a combination of narcotic and anesthesia. The second choice is a Combines Spinal- Epidural which is a main initial injection of medication in the outer most layer of the spinal cord and inward of the Epidural space. The Catheter is then left in so that medication can be administered later if needed.

Benefits of an Epidural:
-Allows a mother to relax during labor if it is long
-Relieves discomfort
-Gives the mother extra strength to push through a tough labor and be an active and awake during child birth.

Disadvantages of an Epidural:
-Sudden drop in blood pressure of the mother
-Headache, discomfort at the epidural sight, itching, shivering
-Numbness of the lower body for a few hours
-Pushing may become more difficult
-Can slow labor down so a mother needs to alternate positions often
-Rarely an Epidural will cause permanent nerve damage or the baby will have trouble latching to breast feed.

There are other ways to counteract the pain of child birth then by receiving and Epidural. An expecting mother needs to mentally prepare for the process and not be stress out. Stress causes more pain so if you can control the stress then the birthing experience should be a more positive one. The environment around a mother is very important along with the support that she is receiving. Most importantly everyone needs to do what makes her comfortable and but her needs first.

Ultimately it is the mothers choice to receive and Epidural or not. Every hospital has different policies and procedures about Epidurals so a mother needs to look into that before she makes a decision.

References:

http://www.americanpregnancy.org/labornbirth/epidural.html

http://pregnancy.about.com/cs/painmedsinlabor/a/epiduralfacts.htm

http://pregnancy.about.com/cs/painmedsinlabor/a/waystocope_2.htm

Having a Bigger Brain Won't Cost You an Arm and a Leg

Over the course of human evolution human brains have gotten larger in size.  This being said, the brain requires a large amount of energy to function properly.  Until recently scientists have believed in the 'expensive-tissue hypothesis'. The hypothesis suggests that due to an increase in brain size over the course of human evolution the size and efficiency of the human gut has decreased.  The thought is that since the size of the human brain has gotten bigger it requires more energy. So the brain took energy from the gut to allow growth. However that hypothesis has been challenged by the scientists at the Univeristy of Zurich.

Recent findings suggest that there is one main reason why the brain could adapt without affecting the other organs. Somehow, over the course of the evolution process humans found ways to decrease the amount of energy they used and transfered that to allow for a larger brain. This happened in a number of ways:

• Bipedalism was developed
• A better diet of meats over vegitation 
• Communal childcare

These three things changed the amount of energy that humans use or taken in. Bipedalism was a big step in allowing this shift because walking on two legs uses up a lot less energy than knuckle walking.  Since less energy is spent on moving around those who walked on two legs could afford having a bigger brain.  Secondly, the meat diet increased the amount of energy that humans took in, thus allowing them to have a larger brain without decreasing the size of any of their other tissues.  The third reason is that humans use communal childcare.  Since more than one adult helps to raise one child in the big brained species more children can be born more often. If only one parent helps to raise a kid then they will only be able to have one child every five years or so. This effectively decreases the amount of energy it takes to raise a child, allowing for more childbirth of more offspring with bigger brains.

More on this:
JSTOR Current Anthropology
Daily Science

Krabbe Disease

Krabbe disease, also called globoid cell leukodystrophy (GLD), is an incredibly destructive degenerative neurological disorder. The disease most commonly develops within three to six months after birth. Signs that a new born may have this disease are first characterized by

• irritability
• spasms
  
• hypersensitivity to external stimuli
  
• hypertonic fits
  
• loss of reflexes
  

The disease turns fatal normally before two years of age. (1)

GLD has shown itself in individuals after two years of age and causes:

• blindness
  
• weakness in motor/sensory nerves
  
• mental inability
  
• fatality
  

Krabbe disease is an autosomal recessive disorder where the disorder is passed down only if two copies of the abnormal gene are present. The human chromosome fourteen is the one that has been mapped to this neurological disorder. (2)

GLD is distinguished by the disintegration of the protective myelin sheath around nerves, the intrusion of globoid cells which are cells containing more than one nucleus, and eradication of brain cells. Krabbe disease is classified as a leukodystrophy. Leukodystrophys debilitate the maturation of the myelin sheath, the fatty covering around nerve fibers, that provides insulation (2). In the nervous system, myelin is highly important for the quick and precise conduction of impulses (3).

The demylelination of the nervous system causes severe motor skill impairment along with the death of brain cells. An early onset of Krabbe disease causes one to exhibit a change in muscle tone. This change in muscle tone can be observed as a somewhat floppy posture to a more rigid posture called decerebrate posturing. Krabbe disease also causes loss of hearing worsening to the point of deafness.

Those with GLD experience severe seizures at a very young age along with random fevers and vomiting. Just as hearing is affected so is vision as vision loss rapidly turns into blindness. Those experiencing a late onset of this neurological disorder normally experience vision problems first, followed by walking disabilities and muscle rigidity while symptoms vary from person to person (4).

There are several options to test if an individual has Krabbe disease.

• An eye exam focusing on the retina could reveal damage to the optic nerve.

• A blood test looking for low levels of galactosylceramidase (GALC) in white blood cells, which is an essential component of myelin.

• A sample of patient’s cerebrospinal fluid can be tested for an abnormal level of proteins which suggests that there is an abnormal process present in the central nervous system.

• Doctors can use an MRI of the head to further investigate for the presence of GLD.

• check to see if one's nerve conduction velocity is at a normal rate (those with Krabbe disease would show a decrease in conduction velocity for as the myelin sheath breaks down the ease of conduction is decreased) (4).

The treatment for GLD is very limited and most treatments are only to alleviate pain and do not actually correct the deficiency and neurological cause. However, certain treatments have shown to be incredibly effective if treatment is given before the onset of the first symptoms of the disease. There are two different routes that can be taken in order to treat GLD.

• Providing increased GALC activity to available oligodendrocytes in order to get rid of the accumulating psychosine that is inhibiting mylination

• Replace damaged oligodendrocytes by creating new ones out of neural stem cells after increasing GALC activity. (5)
  

Because GLD is such a devastating disease of which treatment is limited and risky, the best way to battle this disease is to prevent it. Those considering having children with a background of Krabbe disease in their family are encouraged to go to genetic counseling before conceiving.

(1) Lee, W. C., Tsoi, Y. K., Trodendle, F. J., DeLucia, M. W., Ahmed, Z., Dicky, C. A., Dickson, D. W., & Eckman, C. B. (2007). Single-dose intracerebroventricular administration of galactocerebrosidase improves survival in a mouse model of globoid cell leukodystrophy. The FASEB Journal, 21. 2520-2527.

(2) Wenger, D. A., Rafi, M. A., & Luzi, P. (1997). Molecular genetics of krabbe disease (globoid cell leukodystrophy): Diagnostic and clinical implications. Human Mutation, 10(4). 268-279.

(3) Michailov, G. V., Sereda, M. W., Brinkmann, B. G., Fischer, T. M., Haug, B., Birchmeier, C., Role, L., Lai, C., Schwab, M. H., & Nave, K. A. (2004). Axonal neuregulin-1 regulates myelin sheath thickness. Science, 304(5671). 700-703.

(4) Fernandes, J., Saudubray, J., Berghe, G., Walter, J.H., & Vanier, M. (2006). Metabolic Diseases: Diagnosis and Treatment. New York, NY: Springer.

(5) Escolar, M. L., Poe, M. D., Provenzale, J. M., Richards, K. C., Allison, J., Wood, S., Wenger, D. A., Pietryga, D., Wall, D., Champagne, M., Morse, R., Krivit, W., & Kurtzberg, J. (2004). Transplantation of umbilical-cord blood in babies with infantile krabbe’s disease. The New England Journal of Medicine, 352(20). 1250-1251.